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Ocean Science

Acoustic mapping of mixed layer depth

The ocean surface mixed layer depth (MLD) is an important parameter within several research disciplines, as variations in the MLD influence air–sea CO₂exchange and ocean primary production. A new method is presented in which acoustic mapping of the MLD is done remotely by means of echo sounders. This method allows for observations of high-frequency variability in the MLD, as horizontal and temporal resolutions can be increased by orders of magnitude compared to traditional in situ measurements.

Annales Geophysicae

New high-frequency (7–12 kHz) quasi-periodic VLF emissions observed on the ground at L ∼ 5.5

We reveal previously unknown quasi-periodic (QP) VLF emissions at the unusually high-frequency band of ~ 7–11 kHz by applying the digital filtering of strong sferics to the ground-based VLF data recorded at Kannuslehto station (KAN). In one event, the spectral–temporal forms of the emissions looked like a series of giantbullets, with very abrupt cessation. In the second event, the modulation period was about 3 min under the absence of the simultaneous geomagnetic pulsations.

Biogeosciences

Transfer of diazotroph-derived nitrogen to the planktonic food web across gradients of N₂ fixation activity and diversity in the western tropical South Pacific Ocean

Biological dinitrogen (N₂) fixation provides the major source of new nitrogen (N) to the open ocean, contributing more than atmospheric deposition and riverine inputs to the N supply. Yet the fate of the diazotroph-derived N (DDN) in the planktonic food web is poorly understood. The main goals of this study were (i) to quantify how much of DDN is released to the dissolved pool during N₂ fixation and how much is transferred to bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton, and (ii) to compare the DDN release and transfer efficiencies under contrasting N₂ fixation activity and diversity in the oligotrophic waters of the western tropical South Pacific Ocean.

Earth System Dynamics

Climate sensitivity estimates – sensitivity to radiative forcing time series and observational data

A key question in climate science is how the global mean surface temperature responds to changes in greenhouse gases. This dependency is quantified by the climate sensitivity, which is determined by the complex feedbacks in the climate system. In this study observations of past climate change are used to estimate this sensitivity. Our estimate is consistent with values for the equilibrium climate sensitivity estimated by complex climate models but sensitive to the use of uncertain input data.

Solid Earth

The seismogenic fault system of the 2017 Mw 7.3 Iran–Iraq earthquake: constraints from surface and subsurface data, cross-section balancing, and restoration

A balanced cross section across the hypocentre of the 2017 Iran–Iraq M_w7.3 earthquake is presented. The structural style of the area is characterised by inversion tectonics with partial decoupling between the basement and the 10 km thick sedimentary cover. The main shock is located along a low-dipping lateral ramp of the Mountain Front Fault. The balanced cross section indicates that the Mountain Front Fault is the only fault where an M_w7.3 earthquake may occur.

Biogeosciences

Reviews and syntheses: Carbonyl sulfide as a multi-scale tracer for carbon and water cycles

Measurements of the trace gas carbonyl sulfide (OCS) are helpful in quantifying photosynthesis at previously unknowable temporal and spatial scales. While CO₂ is both consumed and produced within ecosystems, OCS is mostly produced in the oceans or from specific industries, and destroyed in plant leaves in proportion to CO₂. This review summarizes the advancements we have made in the understanding of OCS exchange and applications to vital ecosystem water and carbon cycle questions.

Biogeosciences

Field-warmed soil carbon changes imply high 21st-century modeling uncertainty

The temperature sensitivity of soil carbon loss is a critical parameter for projecting future CO₂. Isolating soil temperature response in the field is challenging due to difficulties isolating root and microbial respiration. We use a database of direct-warming soil carbon changes to generate a new global temperature sensitivity. Incorporating this into Earth system models reduces projected soil carbon. But it also shows that variation due to this parameter is as high as all other causes.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Estimates of ozone return dates from Chemistry-Climate Model Initiative simulations

We analyse simulations from the Chemistry-Climate Model Initiative (CCMI) to estimate the return dates of the stratospheric ozone layer from depletion by anthropogenic chlorine and bromine. The simulations from 20 models project that global column ozone will return to 1980 values in 2047 (uncertainty range 2042–2052). Return dates in other regions vary depending on factors related to climate change and importance of chlorine and bromine. Column ozone in the tropics may continue to decline.

Earth System Dynamics

On the social dynamics of moisture recycling

Moisture recycling is the atmospheric branch of the water cycle, including evaporation and precipitation. While the physical water cycle is well-understood, the social links among the recipients of precipitation back to the sources of evaporation are not. In this work, we develop a method to determine how these social connections unfold, using a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods, finding that there are distinct types of social connections with corresponding policy and management tools.

Earth System Dynamics

Hazards of decreasing marine oxygen: the near-term and millennial-scale benefits of meeting the Paris climate targets

Human-caused, climate change hazards in the ocean continue to aggravate over a very long time. For business as usual, we project the ocean oxygen content to decrease by 40 % over the next thousand years. This would likely have severe consequences for marine life. Global warming and oxygen loss are linked, and meeting the warming target of the Paris Climate Agreement effectively limits related marine hazards. Developments over many thousands of years should be considered to assess marine risks.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Surface impacts of the Quasi Biennial Oscillation

A major phenomenon in the stratosphere is the Quasi Biennial Oscillation (QBO). Although a feature of the equatorial stratosphere, its influence extends to surface weather at both equatorial and mid latitudes. Improved knowledge of mechanisms of influence should help to improve weather forecasts. In this paper, QBO impacts at the surface are characterized and dominant mechanisms explored. Three pathways are identified, referred to as the tropical, subtropical and polar routes.

Earth Surface Dynamics

On the Holocene evolution of the Ayeyawady megadelta

Here we provide the first results on the evolution of the Ayeyarwady delta, the last unstudied megadelta of Asia. In addition to its intrinsic value as a founding study on the Holocene development of this region, we advance new ideas on the climate control of monsoonal deltas as well as describe for the first time a feedback mechanism between tectonics and tidal hydrodynamics that can explain the peculiarities of the Ayeyarwady delta.

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Airborne wind lidar observations over the North Atlantic in 2016 for the pre-launch validation of the satellite mission Aeolus

This work reports airborne wind lidar observations performed in a recent field campaign. The deployed lidar system serves as a demonstrator for the satellite instrument ALADIN on board Aeolus, which is scheduled for launch in 2018 and will become the first wind lidar in space. After presenting the measurement principle, operation procedures and wind retrieval algorithm, the obtained wind results are validated and discussed, providing valuable information in preparation for the satellite mission.

Geoscience Communication

Editorial: Geoscience Communication – Building bridges, not walls

Welcome to the journal of Geoscience Communication! We decided to write this editorial in order to introduce ourselves (the executive editors of GC), to provide a history of its development, and to serve as a guideline for future authors who wish to submit to this journal. We hope that this article serves as a useful aid for people who are considering publishing in GC, as well as the wider geoscience community, and that it can act in the first instance as a FAQ for authors, editors, and readers alike.

Earth System Dynamics

Two drastically different climate states on an Earth-like terra-planet

Using climate simulations, we investigate the role of water recycling in shaping the climate of low-obliquity Earth-like terra-planets. By such a mechanism feeding water back from the extra-tropics to the tropics, the planet can assume two drastically different climate states differing by more than 35 K in global temperature. We describe the bifurcation between the two states occurring upon changes in surface albedo and argue that the bistability hints at a wider habitable zone for such planets.

Earth System Dynamics

Assessing the impact of a future volcanic eruption on decadal predictions

The likelihood of a large volcanic eruption in the future provides the largest uncertainty concerning the evolution of the climate system on the timescale of a few years, but also an excellent opportunity to learn about the behavior of the climate system, and our models thereof. So the following question emerges: how predictable is the response of the climate system to future eruptions? By this we mean to what extent will the volcanic perturbation affect decadal climate predictions and how does the pre-eruption climate state influence the impact of the volcanic signal on the predictions?

Ocean Science

High-resolution diapycnal mixing map of the Alboran Sea thermocline from seismic reflection images

The Alboran Sea is a dynamically active region. The interaction between Mediterranean and Atlantic water originates a set of sub-mesoscale structures and a complex sequence of processes that entail mixing close to the thermocline. Here we present a high-resolution map of the diapycnal diffusivity around the thermocline depth obtained using acoustic data recorded with a high-resolution multichannel seismic system. The map revels a patchy thermocline, with areas of strong diapycnal mixing.

The Cryosphere

Snow depth on Arctic sea ice from historical in situ data

In this paper we analyze snow data from Soviet airborne expeditions, Sever, which operated in late winter 1959-1986, in the Arctic and made snow measurements on the ice around plane landing sites. The snow measurements were made on the multiyear ice in the central Arctic and on the first-year ice in the Eurasian seas in the areas for which snow characteristics are poorly described in the literature. The main goal of this study is to produce an improved data set of snow depth on the sea ice.

Ocean Science

Consideration of various aspects in a drift study of MH370 debris

To assist in establishing the most likely location of the crash site of MH370, a Boeing 777 aircraft that went missing on March 7, 2014, a drift study was conducted by means of numerical modelling. Three elements were considered: (a) the efficacy of the aerial search; (b) water temperatures along the path of the flaperon; © beached debris distribution. The results obtained indicate the crash site is likely located between 25.5° S and 30.5° S along the so-called seventh arc in the Indian Ocean.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

On ozone trend detection: using coupled chemistry–climate simulations to investigate early signs of total column ozone recovery

2017 marks the 30th anniversary of the Montreal Protocol, which was implemented to protect the stratospheric ozone layer from the harmful effects of synthetic ozone depleting substances. Since the late 1990s atmospheric concentrations of these species have begun to decline, and as a result ozone concentrations are expected to increase. In this study we use an ensemble of chemistry–climate simulations to investigate recent ozone trends and search for early signs of ozone recovery.

Earth Surface Dynamics

Glacial isostatic adjustment modelling: historical perspectives, recent advances, and future directions

This article is a contribution to a special issue onTwo centuries of modelling across scales. It describes the historical observations, evolving hypotheses, and early calculations that led to the development of the field of glacial isostatic sdjustment (GIA) modelling, which seeks to understand feedbacks between ice-sheet change, sea-level change, and solid Earth deformation. Recent and future advances are discussed. Future progress will likely involve an interdisciplinary approach.

Climate of the Past

Aromatic acids in an Arctic ice core from Svalbard: a proxy record of biomass burning

This study presents organic acid levels in an ice core from Svalbard over the past 800 years. These acids are produced from wildfire emissions and transported as aerosol. Organic acid levels are high early in the record and decline until the 20th century. Siberia and Europe are likely the primary source regions of the fire emissions. The data are similar to those from a Siberian ice core prior to 1400 CE. The timing of the divergence after 1400 CE is similar to a shift in North Atlantic climate.

Earth System Dynamics

Estimating sowing and harvest dates based on the Asian summer monsoon

Sowing and harvest dates are a significant source of uncertainty within crop models. South Asia is one region with a large uncertainty. We aim to provide more accurate sowing and harvest dates than currently available and that are relevant for climate impact assessments. This method reproduces the present day sowing and harvest dates for most parts of India and when applied to two future periods provides a useful way of modelling potential growing season adaptations to changes in future climate.

Earth System Dynamics

Analytically tractable climate–carbon cycle feedbacks under 21st century anthropogenic forcing

Around half of the carbon that humans emit into the atmosphere each year is taken up on land (by trees) and in the ocean (by absorption). We construct a simple model of carbon uptake that, unlike the complex models that are usually used, can be analysed mathematically. Our results include that changes in atmospheric carbon may affect future carbon uptake more than changes in climate. Our simple model could also study mechanisms that are currently too uncertain for complex models.

Climate of the Past

Random and externally controlled occurrences of Dansgaard–Oeschger events

The climate of the last glacial period was frequently interrupted by rapid warming events, the cause of which is still unknown. One open question is whether the occurrence of events is random or externally controlled. We studied the temporal characteristics of warm and cold phases using statistical null models and find that they are well described as random processes modulated by two different external climate factors. This may help distinguish physical mechanisms for rapid climate change.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Effects of climatic seasonality on the isotopic composition of evaporating soil waters

Evaporation causes the isotopic composition of soil water to become different from that of the original precipitation source. If multiple samples originating from the same source are available, they can be used to reconstruct the original source composition. However, soil water is influenced by seasonal variability in both precipitation sources and evaporation patterns. We show that this variability, if not accounted for, can lead to biased estimates of the precipitation source water.

Geoscientific Model Development

Crossing the chasm: how to develop weather and climate models for next generation computers?

Weather and climate models consist of complex software evolving in response to both scientific requirements and changing computing hardware. After years of relatively stable hardware, more diversity is arriving. It is possible that this hardware diversity and the pace of change may lead to an inability for modelling groups to manage their software development. This “chasm” between aspiration and reality may need to be bridged by large community efforts rather than traditional “in-house” efforts.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Contrails and their impact on shortwave radiation and photovoltaic power production – a regional model study

A numerical model also used for operational weather forecast was applied to investigate the impact of contrails and contrail cirrus on the radiative fluxes at the earth’s surface. Accounting for contrails produced by aircraft enables the model to simulate high clouds that are otherwise missing. In a case study, we find that the effect of these extra clouds is to reduce the incoming shortwave radiation at the surface as well as the production of photovoltaic power by up to 10 %.

Climate of the Past

Technical note: Open-paleo-data implementation pilot – the PAGES 2k special issue

We explain the procedure used to attain a high and consistent level of data stewardship across a special issue of the journal Climate of the Past. We discuss the challenges related to (1) determining which data are essential for public archival, (2) using data generated by others, and (3) understanding data citations. We anticipate that open-data sharing in paleo sciences will accelerate as the advantages become more evident and as practices that reduce data loss become the accepted convention.

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Vertical wind velocity measurements using a five-hole probe with remotely piloted aircraft to study aerosol–cloud interactions

Remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS), commonly called UAVs, are used in atmospheric science for in situ measurements. The presented work shows wind measurements from a five-hole probe on an RPAS. Comparisons with other instruments (sonic anemometer and cloud radar) show good agreement, validating the RPAS measurements. In situ vertical wind measurements at cloud base are highlighted because they are a major parameter needed for simulating aerosol–cloud interactions, though rarely collected.

The Cryosphere

Brief communication: Unabated wastage of the Juneau and Stikine icefields (southeast Alaska) in the early 21^st century

Two recent studies suggested a slowdown in mass loss after 2000 of the Juneau and Stikine icefields, accounting for 10% of the total ice cover in Alaska. Here, the ASTER-based geodetic mass balances are revisited, carefully avoiding the use of the SRTM DEM, because of the unknown penetration depth of the SRTM C-band radar signal. We find strongly negative mass balances from 2000 to 2016 for both icefields, in agreement with airborne laser altimetry. Mass losses are thus continuing unabated.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

A new method, with application, for analysis of the impacts on flood risk of widely distributed enhanced hillslope storage

Flooding is a significant hazard and extreme events in recent years have focused attention on effective means of reducing its risk. An approach known as natural flood management (NFM) seeks to increase flood resilience by a range of measures that work with natural processes. The paper develops a modelling approach to assess one type NFM of intervention – distributed additional hillslope storage features – and demonstrates that more strategic placement is required than has hitherto been applied.

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Adaption of an array spectroradiometer for total ozone column retrieval using direct solar irradiance measurements in the UV spectral range

A compact array spectroradiometer technology that enables precise and robust measurements of UV spectral irradiance is presented. We show that this instrument can retrieve total ozone column (TOC) accurately. The internal stray light, which is often the limiting factor for measurements in the UV spectral range, is physically reduced so that no other stray-light reduction methods are needed. During an international total ozone measurement intercomparison, the high quality was verified.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Global evaluation and calibration of a passive air sampler for gaseous mercury

A new passive air sampler for gaseous mercury was tested at 20 sites on four continents. These sites have in common that they use the state-of-the-art active air sampling technique for gaseous mercury on a continuous basis and therefore allow for an evaluation and calibration of the passive sampler. The sampler proved to work exceptionally well, with a precision and accuracy on par with the active instrument and better than what has previously been achieved with passive samplers.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Novel pathway of SO₂ oxidation in the atmosphere: reactions with monoterpene ozonolysis intermediates and secondary organic aerosol

Synergistic effects between SOA formation and SO₂ oxidation through Criegee chemistry and reactive uptake by organic peroxides were observed. The relative importance of these two pathways (Criegee vs. peroxide) varies with relative humidity. The latter SO₂ loss mechanism to organic peroxides in SOA has not previously been identified. Our results suggest a new pathway of atmospheric SO₂ oxidation, which may contribute to the missing mechanisms of high-sulfate production in the polluted areas.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Using satellite measurements of N₂O to remove dynamical variability from HCl measurements

Detecting trends in short data sets of stratospheric molecules is difficult because of variability due to dynamical fluctuations. We suggest that one way around this difficulty is using the measurements of one molecule to remove dynamical variability from the measurements of another molecule. We illustrate this using Aura MLS measurements of N₂O to help us sort out issues in the determination of trends in HCl. This shows that HCl is decreasing throughout the middle stratosphere as expected.

The Cryosphere

The influence of atmospheric grid resolution in a climate model-forced ice sheet simulation

Coupled climate–ice sheet simulations have been growing in popularity in recent years. Experiments of this type are however challenging as ice sheets evolve over multi-millennial timescales, which is beyond the practical integration limit of most Earth system models. A common method to increase model throughput is to trade resolution for computational efficiency (compromise accuracy for speed). Here we analyze how the resolution of an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) influences the simulation quality in a stand-alone ice sheet model. Four identical AGCM simulations of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) were run at different horizontal resolutions: T85 (1.4∘), T42 (2.8∘), T31 (3.8∘), and T21 (5.6∘). These simulations were subsequently used as forcing of an ice sheet model.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Considering the future of anthropogenic gas-phase organic compound emissions and the increasing influence of non-combustion sources on urban air quality

Following decades of successful regulatory policies focused on combustion-related sources (e.g. motor vehicles), emissions from non-combustion sources have become increasingly important for urban air quality. Using multiple approaches, we demonstrate that emissions from consumer, commercial, and industrial products and materials have become prominent contributors to the formation of photochemical smog (i.e. secondary organic particulate matter and ozone) and its associated health effects.

Climate of the Past

Moving beyond the age–depth model paradigm in deep-sea palaeoclimate archives: dual radiocarbon and stable isotope analysis on single foraminifera

Palaeoclimate reconstructions from deep-sea sediment archives provide valuable insight into past rapid climate change, but only a small proportion of the ocean is suitable for such reconstructions using the existing state of the art, i.e. the age–depth approach. We use dual radiocarbon (¹⁴C) and stable isotope analysis on single foraminifera to bypass the long-standing age–depth approach, thus facilitating past ocean chemistry reconstructions from vast, previously untapped ocean areas.

Biogeosciences

Mercury distribution and transport in the North Atlantic Ocean along the Geotraces-GA01 transect

We first report the mercury distribution in the water section across the subpolar and subtropical gyres of the North Atlantic Ocean (GEOTRACES-GA01 transect). It allows the characterisation of various seawater types in terms of mercury content and the quantification of mercury transport associated with the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. It shows the nutrient-like biogeochemical behaviour of mercury in this ocean.

Biogeosciences

Interannual drivers of the seasonal cycle of CO₂ in the Southern Ocean

The Southern Ocean accounts for a large portion of the variability in oceanic CO₂ uptake. However, the drivers of these changes are not understood due to a lack of observations. In this study, we used an ensemble of gap-filling methods to estimate surface CO₂. We found that winter was a more important driver of longer-term variability driven by changes in wind stress. Summer variability of CO₂ was driven primarily by increases in primary production.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Brief communication: Loss of life due to Hurricane Harvey

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-18-1073-2018
19 April 2018

An analysis was made of the loss of life directly caused by Hurricane Harvey. Information was collected for 70 fatalities that occurred directly due to the event. Most of the fatalities occurred in the greater Houston area, which was most severely affected by extreme rainfall and heavy flooding. The majority of fatalities in this area were recovered outside the designated 100- and 500-year flood zones. Most fatalities occurred due to drowning (81 %), particularly in and around vehicles.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Regional evapotranspiration from an image-based implementation of the Surface Temperature Initiated Closure (STIC1.2) model and its validation across an aridity gradient in the conterminous US

We report the first ever regional-scale implementation of the Surface Temperature Initiated Closure (STIC1.2) model for mapping evapotranspiration (ET) using MODIS land surface and gridded climate datasets to overcome the existing uncertainties in aerodynamic temperature and conductance estimation in global ET models. Validation and intercomparison with SEBS and MOD16 products across an aridity gradient in the US manifested better ET mapping potential of STIC1.2 in different climates and biomes.

Geoscientific Model Development

A protocol for the intercomparison of marine fishery and ecosystem models: Fish-MIP v1.0

Model intercomparison studies in the climate and Earth sciences communities have been crucial for strengthening future projections. Given the speed and magnitude of anthropogenic change in the marine environment, the time is ripe for similar comparisons among models of fisheries and marine ecosystems. We describe the Fisheries and Marine Ecosystem Model Intercomparison Project, which brings together the marine ecosystem modelling community to inform long-term projections of marine ecosystems.

Geoscientific Model Development

Intercomparison of Antarctic ice-shelf, ocean, and sea-ice interactions simulated by MetROMS-iceshelf and FESOM 1.4

MetROMS and FESOM are two ocean/sea-ice models which resolve Antarctic ice-shelf cavities and consider thermodynamics at the ice-shelf base. We simulate the period 1992–2016 with both models, and with two options for resolution in FESOM, and compare output from the three simulations. Ice-shelf melt rates, sub-ice-shelf circulation, continental shelf water masses, and sea-ice processes are compared and evaluated against available observations.

The Cryosphere

Climate change and the global pattern of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods

Most mountain glaciers have receded throughout the last century in response to global climate change. This recession produces a range of natural hazards including glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). We have produced the first global inventory of GLOFs associated with the failure of moraine dams and show, counterintuitively, that these have reduced in frequency over recent decades. In this paper we explore the reasons for this pattern.

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Intercomparison of middle-atmospheric wind in observations and models

Wind information throughout the middle-atmosphere is crucial for the understanding of atmospheric dynamics but became available only recently, thanks to developments in remote sensing and modelling approaches. We present the first thorough assessment of the quality of the wind estimates by comparing co-located observations from lidar and microwave radiometry and opposing them to the major atmospheric models. Moreover we evaluated a new approach for measuring mesopause region wind by radiometry.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Going beyond the flood insurance rate map: insights from flood hazard map co-production

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-18-1097-2018
6 April 2018

In this study, engineers and social scientists explore opportunities for improving the utility of flood hazard maps through focus groups with end users. Focus groups revealed that end users preferred legends that describe flood intensity both quantitatively and with qualitative reference points, as well as flood scenario descriptions that describe the magnitude (rather than frequency) of the flood. Illustrations of pluvial flooding, or flooding caused directly by rainfall, were highly desired.

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems

Investigation of a low-cost magneto-inductive magnetometer for space science applications

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems
DOI 10.5194/gi-7-129-2018
28 March 2018

The presence of magnetic fields in space dominate the way planets interact with different types of plasmas. Thus, measuring them is extremely important when studying space. We present an instrument capable of measuring magnetic fields at a fraction of the cost, power and size of traditional magnetometers. With this technology, a science-grade magnetometer for small satellites can be achieved, enabling the study of the space environment with large clusters of sensors in future missions.

Climate of the Past

A 305-year continuous monthly rainfall series for the island of Ireland (1711–2016)

This work reconstructs a continuous 305-year rainfall record for Ireland. The series reveals remarkable variability in decadal rainfall – far in excess of the typical period of digitised data. Notably, the series sheds light on exceptionally wet winters in the 1730s and wet summers in the 1750s. The derived record, one of the longest continuous series in Europe, offers a firm basis for benchmarking other long-term records and reconstructions of past climate both locally and across Europe.