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Earth System Dynamics

Societal breakdown as an emergent property of large-scale behavioural models of land use change

Concerns are growing that human activity will lead to social and environmental breakdown, but it is hard to anticipate when and where such breakdowns might occur. We developed a new model of land management decisions in Europe to explore possible future changes and found that decision-making that takes into account social and environmental conditions can produce unexpected outcomes that include societal breakdown in challenging conditions.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

First reported case of thunderstorm asthma in Israel

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-2715-2019
10 December 2019

During severe thunderstorms, cold outflows can eject pollen and dust particles from the surface, releasing allergens and causingthunderstorm asthmaepidemics in sensitive populations. We report the first case in Israel that occurred on 25 October 2015. The emergency room presentation records from three hospitals in central Israel showed a clear increase in patients with respiratory complaints immediately after the passage of a massive super-cell thunderstorm in the area.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

The diurnal cycle of the smoky marine boundary layer observed during August in the remote southeast Atlantic

Boundary layer (BL) semi-direct effects in the remote SE Atlantic are investigated using LASIC field measurements and satellite retrievals. Low-cloud cover and cloud liquid water path decrease with increasing smoke loadings in the BL. Daily-mean surface-based mixed layer is warmer by 0.5 K, moisture accumulates near the surface throughout the night, and the BL deepens by 200 m, with LWPs and cloud top heights increasing, in the sunlit morning hours, as part of the smoke-altered BL diurnal cycle.

Climate of the Past

Can we use sea surface temperature and productivity proxy records to reconstruct Ekman upwelling?

We test two assumptions that are often made in paleoclimate studies by using observations and ask whether temperature and productivity proxy records in the Southern California Current can be used to reconstruct Ekman upwelling. By examining the covariation between alongshore wind stress, temperature, and productivity, we found that the dominant covarying pattern does not reflect Ekman upwelling. Other upwelling patterns found are timescale dependent. Multiple proxies can improve reconstruction.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Large-scale particulate air pollution and chemical fingerprint of volcanic sulfate aerosols from the 2014–2015 Holuhraun flood lava eruption of Bárðarbunga volcano (Iceland)

This study, benefiting especially from recently developed mass spectrometry observations of aerosols, highlights unknown properties of volcanic sulfates in the troposphere. It shows their specific chemical fingerprint, distinct from those of freshly emitted industrial sulfates and background aerosols. We also demonstrate the large-scale persistence of the volcanic sulfate pollution over weeks. Hence, these results cast light on the impact of tropospheric eruptions on air quality and climate.

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Low-temperature triple-capillary cryostat for ice crystal growth studies

We have built a triple-capillary cryostat designed to reduce potential instrumental effects that may have influenced earlier measurements and to improve our understanding of the processes responsible for ice crystal shapes and sizes. In this cryostat, a crystal forms on one of three well-separated and ultrafine capillaries. In this paper we describe the new instrument and present several observations made using the instrument to illustrate the instrument’s advantages.

Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics

Compacting the description of a time-dependent multivariable system and its multivariable driver by reducing the state vectors to aggregate scalars: the Earth’s solar-wind-driven magnetosphere

A methodology is developed to simplify the mathematical description of activity in a time-dependent driven system. The method describes the response in the system that is most-closely related to the driver. This reduced description has advantages: low noise, high prediction efficiency, linearity in the described system response to the driver, and compactness. The analysis of the Earth’s magnetospheric system is demonstrated.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Distinct stores and the routing of water in the deep critical zone of a snow-dominated volcanic catchment

This paper examines the influence of the subsurface structure on water routing, water residence times, and the hydrologic response of distinct groundwater stores and further investigates their contribution to streamflow. We conclude that deep groundwater from the fractured aquifer system, rather than shallow groundwater, is the dominant source of streamflow, which highlights the need to better characterize the deep subsurface of mountain systems using interdisciplinary studies such as this one.

Earth System Dynamics

Meeting climate targets by direct CO2 injections: what price would the ocean have to pay?

This modeling study is the first one to look at the suitability and collateral effects of direct CO₂injection into the deep ocean as a means to bridge the gap between CO₂emissions and climate impacts of an intermediate CO₂emission scenario and a temperature target on a millennium timescale, such as the 1.5 °C climate target of the Paris Agreement.

Geoscience Communication

Geo-locate project: a novel approach to resolving meteorological station location issues with the assistance of undergraduate students

The Global Land and Marine Observations Database aims to produce a comprehensive land-based meteorological data archive and inventory. Data sources contained stations in incorrect locations; therefore, we developed the Geo-locate project, enlisting the help of undergraduate geography students. The project has resolved 1926 station issues so far. Due to the success of the Geo-locate project, we encourage other organizations to engage university students to help resolve similar data issues.

The Cryosphere

New Last Glacial Maximum ice thickness constraints for the Weddell Sea Embayment, Antarctica

We studied the history of ice masses at three locations in the Weddell Sea Embayment, Antarctica. We measured rare isotopes in material sourced from mountains overlooking the Slessor Glacier, Foundation Ice Stream, and smaller glaciers on the Lassiter Coast. We show that ice masses were between 385 and 800 m thicker during the last glacial cycle than they are at present. The ice masses were both hundreds of metres thicker and remained thicker closer to the present than was previously thought.

Earth System Dynamics

Evaluating climate emulation: fundamental impulse testing of simple climate models

Simple climate models (SCMs) underlie many important scientific and decision-making endeavors. This illustrates the need for their use to be rooted in a clear understanding of their fundamental responses. In this study, we provide a comprehensive assessment of model performance by evaluating the fundamental responses of several SCMs. We find biases in some responses, which have implications for decision science. We conclude by recommending a standard set of validation tests for any SCM.

The Cryosphere

Melt at grounding line controls observed and future retreat of Smith, Pope, and Kohler glaciers

We used a number of computer simulations to understand the recent retreat of a rapidly changing group of glaciers in West Antarctica. We found that significant melt underneath the floating extensions of the glaciers, driven by relatively warm ocean water at depth, was likely needed to cause the large retreat that has been observed. If melt continues around current rates, retreat is likely to continue through the coming century and extend beyond the present-day drainage area of these glaciers.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

The first version of the Pan-European Indoor Radon Map

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-2451-2019
15 November 2019

The first version of the Pan-European Indoor Radon Map is presented in this article. The map has been developed using summary statistics estimated from 1.2 million samples. It represents an average radon concentration per 10 km x 10 km grid cell under the assumption that there are dwellings in the grid cell. It is a major contribution to the understanding of the exposure to ionizing radiation of Europeans and a first step towards a European radon exposure and, in the future, radon dose map.

Earth Surface Dynamics

Seismic location and tracking of snow avalanches and slush flows on Mt. Fuji, Japan

Avalanches and slush flows from Mt. Fuji are a major natural hazard as they may attain run-out distances of up to 4 km and destroy parts of the forest and infrastructure. We located and tracked them for the first time using seismic data. Numerical simulations were conducted to assess the precision of the seismic tracking. We also inferred dynamical properties characterizing these hazardous mass movements. This information is indispensable for assessing avalanche risk in the Mt. Fuji region.

The Cryosphere

Calving cycle of the Brunt Ice Shelf, Antarctica, driven by changes in ice shelf geometry

Two large icebergs are about to break off from the Brunt Ice Shelf in Antarctica. Rifting started several years ago and is now approaching its final phase. Satellite data and computer simulations show that over the past 2 decades, growth of the ice shelf has caused a build-up of forces within the ice, which culminated in its fracture. These natural changes in geometry coincided with large variations in flow speed, a process that is thought to be relevant for all Antarctic ice shelf margins.

Climate of the Past

Effects of land use and anthropogenic aerosol emissions in the Roman Empire

Using the global aerosol–climate model ECHAM-HAM-SALSA, the effect of humans on European climate in the Roman Empire was quantified. Both land use and novel estimates of anthropogenic aerosol emissions were considered. We conducted simulations with fixed sea-surface temperatures to gain a first impression about the anthropogenic impact. While land use effects induced a regional warming for one of the reconstructions, aerosol emissions led to a cooling associated with aerosol–cloud interactions.

Annales Geophysicae

Electron pairing in mirror modes: surpassing the quasi-linear limit

The mirror mode starts as a zero-frequency ion fluid instability and saturates quasi-linearly at very low magnetic level, while forming extended magnetic bubbles. These trap the adiabatically bouncing electron component which forms pairs near the mirror points. The large pair anisotropy causes further growth beyond quasilinear level. Including pressure equilibrium gives and estimate of the required pair density.

Biogeosciences

Microbial community composition and abundance after millennia of submarine permafrost warming

Permafrost temperatures increased substantially at a global scale, potentially altering microbial assemblages involved in carbon mobilization before permafrost thaws. We used Arctic Shelf submarine permafrost as a natural laboratory to investigate the microbial response to long-term permafrost warming. Our work shows that millennia after permafrost warming by > 10 °C, microbial community composition and population size reflect the paleoenvironment rather than a direct effect through warming.

Geoscientific Model Development

The biophysics, ecology, and biogeochemistry of functionally diverse, vertically and horizontally heterogeneous ecosystems: the Ecosystem Demography model, version 2.2 – Part 1: Model description

Our paper describes the Ecosystem Demography model. This computer program calculates how plants and ground exchange heat, water, and carbon with the air, and how plants grow, reproduce and die in different climates. Most models simplify forests to an average big tree. We consider that tall, deep-rooted trees get more light and water than small plants, and that some plants can with shade and drought. This diversity helps us to better explain how plants live and interact with the atmosphere.

Geoscientific Model Development

The biophysics, ecology, and biogeochemistry of functionally diverse, vertically and horizontally heterogeneous ecosystems: the Ecosystem Demography model, version 2.2 – Part 2: Model evaluation for tropical South America

The Ecosystem Demography model calculates the fluxes of heat, water, and carbon between plants and ground and the air, and the life cycle of plants in different climates. To test if our calculations were reasonable, we compared our results with field and satellite measurements. Our model predicts well the extent of the Amazon forest, how much light forests absorb, and how much water forests release to the air. However, it must improve the tree growth rates and how fast dead plants decompose.

Earth System Dynamics

Modeling forest plantations for carbon uptake with the LPJmL dynamic global vegetation model

We developed a computer model that simulates forests plantations at global scale and how fast such forests can take up CO₂from the atmosphere. Using this new model, we performed simulations for a scenario in which a large fraction (14 %) of global croplands and pastures are either converted to planted forests or natural forests. We find that planted forests take up CO₂substantially faster than natural forests and are therefore a viable strategy for reducing climate change.

The Cryosphere

Contrasting thinning patterns between lake- and land-terminating glaciers in the Bhutanese Himalaya

We investigate thickness change of Bhutanese glaciers during 2004–2011 using repeat GPS surveys and satellite-based observations. The thinning rate of Lugge Glacier (LG) is > 3 times that of Thorthormi Glacier (TG). Numerical simulations of ice dynamics and surface mass balance (SMB) demonstrate that the rapid thinning of LG is driven by both negative SMB and dynamic thinning, while the thinning of TG is minimised by a longitudinally compressive flow regime.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Ensemble models from machine learning: an example of wave runup and coastal dune erosion

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-2295-2019
29 October 2019

Wave runup is important for characterizing coastal vulnerability to wave action; however, it is complex and uncertain to predict. We use machine learning with a high-resolution dataset of wave runup to develop an accurate runup predictor that includes prediction uncertainty. We show how uncertainty in wave runup predictions can be used practically in a model of dune erosion to make ensemble predictions that provide more information and greater predictive skill than a single deterministic model.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Geologic and geomorphic controls on rockfall hazard: how well do past rockfalls predict future distributions?

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-2249-2019
11 October 2019

Here we evaluate geologic, geomorphic, and anthropogenic controls on rockfall hazard and highlight the complexity of interpreting future rockfall hazard based on former boulder distributions. To evaluate how past rockfall deposits relate to contemporary rockfall hazard, we mapped then compared the locations, physical characteristics, and lithologies of rockfall boulders deposited during the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence (n= 185) with their prehistoric counterparts (n= 1093).

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Relative impact of aerosol, soil moisture, and orography perturbations on deep convection

This study addresses the relative impact of orography, soil moisture, and aerosols on precipitation over Germany in different weather regimes. We find that the impact of these perturbations is higher for weak than for strong large-scale forcing. Furthermore, aerosols and soil moisture are both of similar importance for precipitation forecasting, which indicates that their inclusion in operational ensemble forecasting should be assessed in the future.

Earth Surface Dynamics

Mapping landscape connectivity as a driver of species richness under tectonic and climatic forcing

Mountainous landscapes have long been recognized as potential drivers for genetic drift, speciation, and ecological resilience. We present a novel approach that can be used to assess and quantify drivers of biodiversity, speciation, and endemism over geological time. Using coupled climate–landscape models, we show that biodiversity under tectonic and climatic forcing relates to landscape dynamics and that landscape complexity drives species richness through orogenic history.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Understanding the spatiotemporal development of human settlement in hurricane-prone areas on the US Atlantic and Gulf coasts using nighttime remote sensing

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-2141-2019
1 October 2019

This study examined the spatiotemporal dynamics of nighttime satellite-derived human settlement in response to different levels of hurricane proneness in a period from 1992 to 2013. It confirms theSnow Belt-to-Sun BeltUS population shift trend. The results also suggest that hurricane-exposed human settlement has grown in extent and area, as more hurricane exposure has experienced a larger increase rate in settlement intensity.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Benchmarking the predictive capability of hydrological models for river flow and flood peak predictions across over 1000 catchments in Great Britain

We evaluated four hydrological model structures and their parameters on over 1100 catchments across Great Britain, considering modelling uncertainties. Models performed well for most catchments but failed in parts of Scotland and south-eastern England. Failures were often linked to inconsistencies in the water balance. This research shows what conceptual lumped models can achieve, gives insights into where and why these models may fail, and provides a benchmark of national modelling capability.

Biogeosciences

Physical constraints for respiration in microbial hotspots in soil and their importance for denitrification

Biogeosciences
DOI 10.5194/bg-16-3665-2019
27 September 2019

A combination of gas chromatography and X-ray CT reveals the microscale processes that govern soil respiration. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration in microbial hotspots depends not only on the quality and quantity of soil organic matter, but also on the spatial distribution of hotspots. Denitrification kinetics are mainly governed by hotspot architecture due to local competition for oxygen during growth. Cumulative behavior is mainly governed by water saturation due to the overall supply with O₂.

The Cryosphere

Estimating Greenland tidewater glacier retreat driven by submarine melting

The Cryosphere
DOI 10.5194/tc-13-2489-2019
26 September 2019

The ocean’s influence on the retreat of Greenland’s tidewater glaciers is a key factor determining future sea level. By considering observations of ~200 glaciers from 1960, we find a significant relationship between retreat and melting in the ocean. Projected forwards, this relationship estimates the future evolution of Greenland’s tidewater glaciers and provides a practical and empirically validated way of representing ice–ocean interaction in large-scale models used to estimate sea level rise.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Global-scale human pressure evolution imprints on sustainability of river systems

A simple and effective index for the quantitative estimation of the evolution of human pressure on rivers at global scale is proposed. This index, based on nightlights and river discharge data, shows a significant increase from 1992 to 2013 worldwide. The most notable changes are found in river basins across Africa and Asia, where human pressure on rivers is growing markedly. This index identifies priority areas that can be targeted for the implementation of mitigation strategies and plans.

Annales Geophysicae

Hybrid-Vlasov modelling of nightside auroral proton precipitation during southward interplanetary magnetic field conditions

When the terrestrial magnetic field is disturbed, particles from the near-Earth space can precipitate into the upper atmosphere. This work presents, for the first time, numerical simulations of proton precipitation in the energy range associated with the production of aurora (∼1–30 keV) using a global kinetic model of the near-Earth space: Vlasiator. We find that nightside proton precipitation can be regulated by the transition region between stretched and dipolar geomagnetic field lines.

Solid Earth

How can geologic decision-making under uncertainty be improved?

Solid Earth
DOI 10.5194/se-10-1469-2019
3 September 2019

In this paper, we outline the key insights from decision-making research about how, when faced with uncertainty, humans constrain decisions through the use of heuristics (rules of thumb), making them vulnerable to systematic and suboptimal decision biases. We also review existing strategies to debias decision-making that have applicability in the geosciences, giving special attention to strategies that make use of information technology and artificial intelligence.

Geoscientific Model Development

Improved methodologies for Earth system modelling of atmospheric soluble iron and observation comparisons using the Mechanism of Intermediate complexity for Modelling Iron (MIMI v1.0)

MIMI v1.0 was designed for use within Earth system models to simulate the 3-D emission, atmospheric processing, and deposition of iron and its soluble fraction. Understanding the iron cycle is important due to its role as an essential micronutrient for ocean phytoplankton; its supply limits primary productivity in many of the world’s oceans. Human activity has perturbed the iron cycle, and MIMI is capable of diagnosing many of these impacts; hence, it is important for future climate studies.

Ocean Science

CO2 effects on diatoms: a synthesis of more than a decade of ocean acidification experiments with natural communities

Diatoms are a group of phytoplankton species responsible for ~ 25% of primary production on Earth. Ocean acidification (OA) could influence diatoms but the key question is if they become more or less important within marine food webs. We synthesize OA experiments with natural communities and found that diatoms are more likely to be positively than negatively affected by high CO² and larger species may profit in particular. This has important implications for ecosystem services diatoms provide.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Assessing the formation and evolution mechanisms of severe haze pollution in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region using process analysis

The formation mechanism of a severe haze episode that occurred over North China in December 2015, the aerosol radiative impacts on the haze event and the influence mechanism were examined. The PM_2.5 increase during the aerosol accumulation stage was mainly attributed to strong production by the aerosol chemistry process and weak removal by advection and vertical mixing. Restrained vertical mixing was the main reason for near-surface PM_2.5 increase when aerosol radiative feedback was considered.

Earth Surface Dynamics

A global delta dataset and the environmental variables that predict delta formation on marine coastlines

River deltas are valuable resources that support biodiversity and human habitation. Despite this we do not have a global census of deltas nor do we know the conditions that promote their formation. We surveyed 5399 river mouths greater than 50 m wide and found that 2174 (40%) create a delta. The conditions that lead to delta formation are high sediment input and low wave and tide conditions. These results can be used to understand how deltas will adapt to environmental changes.

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Summary and synthesis of Changing Cold Regions Network (CCRN) research in the interior of western Canada – Part 1: Projected climate and meteorology

This article examines future atmospheric-related phenomena across the interior of western Canada associated with abusiness-as-usualclimate scenario. Changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation and extent of warming vary with season, and these generally lead to increases, especially after mid-century, in factors associated with winter snowstorms, freezing rain, drought, forest fires, as well as atmospheric forcing of spring floods, although not necessarily summer convection.

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems

A low-cost device for measuring local magnetic anomalies in volcanic terrain

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems
DOI 10.5194/gi-8-217-2019
22 August 2019

Our knowledge of the Earth’s magnetic field arises from magnetic signals stored in lavas. In rugged volcanic terrain, however, the magnetization of the underlying flows may influence the magnetic field as recorded by newly formed flows on top. To measure these local magnetic anomalies, we developed a low-cost field magnetometer with superior accuracy and user-friendliness. The first measurements on Mt. Etna show local magnetic variations that are much larger than expected.

Solid Earth

Fault-controlled dolomitization in the Montagna dei Fiori Anticline (Central Apennines, Italy): record of a dominantly pre-orogenic fluid migration

The dolomitized intervals of the Lower Jurassic deposits exposed in the Montagna dei Fiori Anticline (Central Apennines, Italy) have been investigated. Accordingly, two fault-related dolomitization events were recognised and interpreted as having occurred before and during the Apenninic orogeny. The analyses suggest significant involvement of evaporitic fluids in both events, most likely derived from the underlying Upper Triassic Burano Formation in the detachment level.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Load-resistance analysis: an alternative approach to tsunami damage assessment applied to the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
DOI 10.5194/nhess-19-1807-2019
20 August 2019

It is known that fragility functions reflect localities (building design standards and topography) and flow velocity is more important, as damage might occur before flow depth reaches its maximum value. This research demonstrates that it is possible to accurately predict building damage by considering related forces with high accuracy, including resistant force, based on building design standards. This method will be useful for damage assessment in areas that have no experience of tsunamis.

Geoscience Communication

Seismic risk: the biases of earthquake media coverage

Exploring a corpus of 320 888 news articles published by 32 worldwide newspapers in 2015, this paper shows the following: news covers a very small proportion of the total number of earthquakes occurring in a year; the duration of coverage is very short, which does not allow for proper coverage of long-term issues; and there is a typical framing of the news about earthquakes that introduces major biases in representation, impeding proper appropriation of the seismic risk by the public.

Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics

Unravelling the spatial diversity of Indian precipitation teleconnections via a non-linear multi-scale approach

We examined the spatial diversity of Indian rainfall teleconnection at different timescales, first by identifying homogeneous communities and later by computing non-linear linkages between the identified communities (spatial regions) and dominant climatic patterns, represented by climatic indices such as El Nino–Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole, North Atlantic Oscillation, Pacific Decadal Oscillation and Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation.

Climate of the Past

Modelling ice sheet evolution and atmospheric CO2 during the Late Pliocene

The Late Pliocene, 3.65–2.75 million years ago, is the most recent period in Earth’s history that was warmer than the present. This makes it interesting for climatological research, because it provides a possible analogue for the near future. We used a coupled ice-sheet–climate model to simulate the behaviour of these systems during this period. We show that the warmest moment saw a sea-level rise of 8–14 m, with a CO₂ concentration of 320–400 ppmv.

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems

Multiresolution wavelet analysis applied to GRACE range-rate residuals

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems
DOI 10.5194/gi-8-197-2019
15 August 2019

In this paper, we present an approach to represent underlying errors in measurements and physical models in the temporal gravity field determination using GRACE observations. This study provides an opportunity to improve the error model and the accuracy of the GRACE parameter estimation, as well as its successor GRACE Follow-On.

Biogeosciences

Ideas and perspectives: is shale gas a major driver of recent increase in global atmospheric methane?

Atmospheric methane has risen rapidly since 2008 and has become more depleted in ¹³C, in contrast to the trend towards more ¹³C enrichment in the late 20th century. Many have used this isotopic evidence to infer an increased biogenic source. Here I analyze the ¹³C trend with the consideration that methane from shale gas is somewhat depleted in ¹³C compared to other fossil fuels. I conclude that shale gas may be responsible for a third of the global increase from all sources.

Ocean Science

High-resolution underwater laser spectrometer sensing provides new insights into methane distribution at an Arctic seepage site

Methane seepage from the seafloor west of Svalbard was investigated with a fast-response membrane inlet laser spectrometer. The acquired data were in good agreement with traditional sparse discrete water sampling, subsequent gas chromatography, and with a new 2-D model based on echo-sounder data. However, the acquired high-resolution data revealed unprecedented details of the methane distribution, which highlights the need for high-resolution measurements for future climate studies.

Geoscience Communication

Taking a Breath of the Wild: are geoscientists more effective than non-geoscientists in determining whether video game world landscapes are realistic?

Game worlds in modern computer games, while they include very Earth-like landscapes, are ultimately fake. Since games can be used for learning, we wondered if people pick up wrong information from games. Using a survey we tested if people with a background in geoscience are better than people without such a background at distinguishing if game landscapes are realistic. We found that geoscientists are significantly better at this, but the difference is small and overall everyone is good at it.

Climate of the Past

Spatial pattern of accumulation at Taylor Dome during Marine Isotope Stage 4: stratigraphic constraints from Taylor Glacier

An ice core from Taylor Glacier, Antarctica, spans a period ~ 70 000 years ago when Earth entered the last ice age. Chemical analyses of the ice and air bubbles allow for an independent determination of the ages of the ice and gas bubbles. The difference between the age of the ice and the bubbles at any given depth, called ∆age, is unusually high in the Taylor Glacier core compared to the Taylor Dome ice core situated to the south. This implies a dramatic accumulation gradient between the sites.